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Canuto, V.M., and S.-H. Shieh, 1979: Scale covariance and G-varying cosmology. II - Thermodynamics, radiation, and the 3 K background. Astrophys. J. Supp. Series, 41, 243-262, doi:10.1086/190618.
Within the framework of a scale-covariant theory of gravitation, a semiclassical description of particles and photons is given. New thermodynamic relations consistent with the modified conservation equations are derived. Application to a system of radiation shows that the observed 3 K background radiation can be interpreted, within the present framework, as a remnant of equilibrium radiation in the past.
As the theory postulates a nonstandard coupling between gravitation and electrodynamics, the assumption that Einstein's theory of gravitation is unchanged forces modifications at the atomic level. The use of Minkowskian spacetime in atomic physics is found to be adequate only over small, but not large, time scales compared with the age of the universe. As a result, a relation between energy and the frequency of a free photon is demonstrated. As a result, it is shown that the relation between energy εν, and the frequency ν of a free photon must be εν = hν/β. Possible observational consequences of this relation are discussed.
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